Abstract

This study investigates the effects of idealized and realistic terrain on tornado characteristics and behavior. It uses a novel simulation approach, nesting a high-fidelity, ultrafine-resolution, tornado-scale, engineering large-eddy simulation (LES) within a Cloud Model 1 (CM1) simulation of a tornadic supercell. We analyze the effects of terrain on the tornado's central pressure, horizontal and vertical velocities, vortex shape, and path. Seven idealized terrain configurations are used including 1) a control run with flat ground, 2) and 3) an idealized hill with steep and gradual slopes having the height of 25.4 m, 4) and 5) an idealized escarpment with steep and gradual slopes having the height of 25.4 m, and 6) and 7) an idealized hill having heights of either 50 or 65 m. Furthermore, a real-world, complex terrain configuration of the same height is analyzed as the eighth case. Results suggest that the presence of terrain relief increases the central pressure deficit, the peak wind speed, and the width of the high wind speed region in the tornado swath, enhancing tornado intensity and causing path deviation. Specifically, the horizontal and vertical velocities at 10 m above ground level (AGL) are stronger with terrain and the location of the maximum pressure deficit occurs along the uphill segment for all idealized cases except the steep hill. The precise location of the maximum wind velocities and pressure deficits varies with the terrain shape and slope. The real terrain simulation is similar to the idealized terrain simulations to a certain extent; however, the vertical velocities are lower and the strongest winds occur over a smaller region, demonstrating the complexity of the tornado–terrain relationship.

Department(s)

Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering

Publication Status

Open Access

Comments

National Science Foundation, Grant 2330150

Keywords and Phrases

Atmosphere-land interaction; Complex terrain; Coupled models; Tornadoes

International Standard Serial Number (ISSN)

1520-0493; 0027-0644

Document Type

Article - Journal

Document Version

Final Version

File Type

text

Language(s)

English

Rights

© 2026 American Meteorological Society, All rights reserved.

Creative Commons Licensing

Creative Commons License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.

Publication Date

01 Apr 2026

Download

Full Text Link

Share

 
COinS